Basics of Neuroscience

Describe the structure of a typical neuron, including the soma, dendrites, axon, and axon terminals.

Distinguish between sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons based on their function.

Describe the main types and functions of glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, Schwann cells).

Explain the role of myelin in insulating axons and speeding up neural signaling.

Explain the concept of a neural circuit using the monosynaptic stretch reflex as a simple example.

Explain the ionic basis of the resting membrane potential, focusing on the roles of potassium leak channels and the sodium-potassium pump.

Explain how the Nernst equation is used to predict the equilibrium potential for a specific ion.

Describe the sequence of events and ion channel activity during an action potential (depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization).

Explain the 'all-or-none' principle of action potentials and the concept of a voltage threshold.

Describe how action potentials propagate along an axon, contrasting myelinated (saltatory) and unmyelinated conduction.

Explain the functional significance of the absolute and relative refractory periods.

Distinguish between the structure and function of electrical and chemical synapses.

Describe the key steps of chemical synaptic transmission, from neurotransmitter release to postsynaptic receptor binding.

Explain how excitatory (EPSP) and inhibitory (IPSP) postsynaptic potentials are generated.

Describe the processes of spatial and temporal summation of synaptic inputs on a neuron.

Compare ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, and describe the G-protein/second messenger cascade for a metabotropic receptor.

Explain the primary mechanisms for clearing neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft (reuptake and enzymatic degradation).

Define neuromodulation and contrast it with fast, point-to-point synaptic transmission.

Classify the major neurotransmitter types (e.g., amino acids, monoamines, acetylcholine).

Describe the synthesis, release, and function of acetylcholine in the nervous system.

Describe the key functions of the neurotransmitter dopamine, referencing the mesolimbic (reward) and nigrostriatal (motor) pathways.

Describe the primary functions of the serotonergic system in regulating mood and other behaviors.

Explain the concepts of drug agonists and antagonists using specific examples.

Explain how common psychoactive drugs (e.g., SSRIs, L-DOPA) alter neurotransmitter system function.

Describe the major divisions of the nervous system: central (CNS) and peripheral (PNS).

Identify the main components of the brain: cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

Describe the general functions of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex.

Identify key subcortical structures and their general functions (thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, basal ganglia).

Distinguish between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Describe the opposing functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

Describe the basic structure and primary functions of the spinal cord.

Describe how lesion studies have contributed to our understanding of brain function.

Distinguish between structural (e.g., MRI) and functional (e.g., fMRI) neuroimaging techniques.

Explain the principle of neurovascular coupling as the basis for fMRI.

Explain the principles of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalography (EEG).

Compare the relative strengths and weaknesses of fMRI and EEG in terms of spatial and temporal resolution.

Describe the purpose and general methodology of single-cell recording for measuring neural activity.

Describe the purpose and general methodology of optogenetics for controlling neural activity.

Describe the general principles of sensory transduction and receptive fields.

Trace the primary visual pathway from the retina to the primary visual cortex.

Describe the functions of the dorsal ('where') and ventral ('what') visual processing streams.

Explain the role of photoreceptors (rods and cones) in detecting light.

Explain the general mechanism of mechanotransduction in the auditory system.

Describe the tonotopic organization of the auditory pathway.

Distinguish between the somatosensory pathways for fine touch and for pain/temperature.

Explain the gate control theory of pain modulation.

Describe the hierarchical organization of the motor system, including the roles of upper and lower motor neurons.

Describe the organization of the primary motor cortex and the concept of the motor homunculus.

Explain the function of the basal ganglia in the initiation and selection of movements.

Explain the role of the cerebellum in motor coordination, timing, and learning.

Describe the neural circuitry of the stretch reflex as an example of a spinal motor circuit.

Explain the motor deficits associated with basal ganglia damage, using Parkinson's disease as an example.

Distinguish between declarative (explicit) and non-declarative (implicit) memory systems.

Describe the stages of memory: encoding, consolidation, and retrieval.

Describe the pivotal role of the hippocampus in forming new declarative memories, using patient H.M. as a case study.

Explain the cellular mechanism of long-term potentiation (LTP) as a model for synaptic plasticity.

Describe the principles of classical and operant conditioning.

Identify key neural substrates involved in fear conditioning (amygdala) and reward learning (dopamine system).

Describe the concept of neuroplasticity and its relevance to learning and recovery from brain injury.

Distinguish between bottom-up (exogenous) and top-down (endogenous) attentional processes.

Distinguish between different forms of attention, such as selective, divided, and sustained attention.

Describe how attention modulates sensory processing in cortical areas.

Describe the role of the prefrontal cortex in executive functions like working memory, planning, and inhibitory control.

Explain the phenomenon of hemispatial neglect and its typical neural basis.

Explain the 'binding problem' in perception with a concrete example.

Describe the role of the amygdala in emotional processing, particularly in fear conditioning.

Compare the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion.

Describe the role of the hypothalamus in regulating motivated behaviours like hunger and thirst.

Describe the role of the limbic system in emotion and memory.

Distinguish between Broca's aphasia and Wernicke's aphasia in terms of symptoms and associated brain areas.

Explain the concept of functional lateralization in the brain, using language as a primary example.