In our last lesson, we charted the profound impact of General Zia-ul-Haq's eleven-year military regime. We saw how his dual policies of state-sponsored Islamization and deep involvement in the Soviet-Afghan War fundamentally re-engineered Pakistan's political and social landscape. Crucially, we concluded by noting the institutional decay his rule left behind, most notably the 8th Amendment to the Constitution, which armed the office of the President with the power to dismiss elected governments.
This lesson picks up where we left off, delving into the turbulent period from 1988 to 1999. Often called Pakistan's "lost decade," these years saw a fragile democracy struggle to find its footing under the long shadow of Zia's legacy. We will analyze the persistent political instability of this era, characterized by a destructive cycle where four successive elected governments—led alternately by Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif—were prematurely dismissed. Our focus will be on examining this revolving door of power, the intense political rivalries, and the overarching role of the non-elected "establishment"—a nexus of the military, the intelligence agencies, and the presidency—in subverting the democratic process.
The Dawn of a Compromised Democracy: Benazir Bhutto's First Term (1988–1990)
Following General Zia's death in a plane crash in August 1988, Pakistan held its first party-based elections in over a decade. Benazir Bhutto, leading her father's Pakistan People's Party (PPP), emerged as the head of the largest party. However, her ascension to power was not a straightforward democratic transfer. It was a negotiated settlement, a "power-sharing" agreement with the powerful establishment.
To understand the dynamics of this era, it is essential to study the conditions under which this democracy was born. Two academic papers offer a detailed account of this period. We will begin with the paper "Power Sharing in Pakistan: A Failed Experience from 1988-1999" to understand the initial setup.
[PDF] Power Sharing in Pakistan: A Failed Experience from 1988-1999
This paper meticulously details the power struggles of the 1990s. Its initial sections are invaluable for understanding the constraints placed on Benazir Bhutto's first government.
Please read the following sections: Begin with the section "General Elections 1988 and Benazir’s 1st Tenure." Focus on the formation of the Islami Jamhoori Ittehad (IJI) with military backing to counter the PPP. Pay close attention to the terms of the deal Benazir had to accept, which institutionalized the military's role in governance and foreign policy. Next, read the subsections on her tussle with the President and her relations with the army. These passages illustrate the immediate conflicts over appointments and authority that defined her term. Finally, read about the dismissal of her government in 1990 by President Ghulam Ishaq Khan (GIK) using the controversial Article 58(2)(b) of the Constitution.
As the reading highlights, Benazir Bhutto’s government was hamstrung from the start. Key challenges included:
- A Hostile President: Ghulam Ishaq Khan, a former bureaucrat and Zia-loyalist, used his constitutional powers under the 8th Amendment to constantly challenge the Prime Minister's authority on issues like judicial and military appointments.
- A Wary Military: The army command, while formally stepping back, retained control over critical policy areas like Afghanistan and the nuclear program. Any attempt by Bhutto to assert civilian supremacy, such as by replacing the ISI chief, was met with stiff resistance.
- Engineered Political Opposition: The establishment, wary of the PPP's populist leanings, cobbled together the IJI, a coalition of right-wing and religious parties led by Nawaz Sharif, to act as a powerful opposition bloc. This created an adversarial federal-provincial relationship, with the IJI-led Punjab government constantly undermining the PPP's central government.
The core issues that led to her dismissal—corruption, misgovernance, and deteriorating law and order—were the official charges. However, as the academic paper "The Fall of PPP Governments in the 1990s" argues, these allegations were often political tools used by the establishment.
[PDF] The Fall of PPP Governments in the 1990s: Political Rivalries and ...
This paper focuses specifically on the PPP's experience and provides a sharp analysis of the factors leading to its dismissals.
Please read the section titled "Benazir Bhutto’s First Tenure". This section summarizes the political, economic, and administrative challenges and frames her 1990 dismissal as a pattern-setting event for the decade.
On August 6, 1990, President Ghulam Ishaq Khan dissolved the National Assembly and dismissed Benazir Bhutto's government, barely 20 months into its five-year term. This act set the precedent for the entire decade: a democratically elected government could be sent home by a non-elected President, backed by the military, under the constitutional cover of the 8th Amendment.
The Pendulum Swings: Nawaz Sharif's First Term (1990–1993)
Following Bhutto's dismissal, the 1990 elections saw a decisive victory for the IJI, bringing Nawaz Sharif, the establishment's protégé, to power. Initially, relations between the new Prime Minister and the "troika"—the triumvirate of power comprising the President, PM, and Army Chief—were harmonious. Sharif's pro-business, conservative policies aligned well with the establishment's vision.
However, this harmony was short-lived. As Prime Minister, Nawaz Sharif began to assert his own authority, leading to friction with both the President and the military.
[PDF] Power Sharing in Pakistan: A Failed Experience from 1988-1999
We return to the "Power Sharing" paper to understand the arc of Nawaz Sharif's first term.
Please read the following sections: Start with "Mian Nawaz Sharif Clinches Power". This sets the scene for his government. Read the subsections on "Differences between Army and Nawaz Sharif" and "Bitter Relations of President and Prime Minister". Note the specific points of contention, such as foreign policy during the Gulf War and, most critically, the appointment of the new Army Chief and Sharif's desire to repeal the 8th Amendment. Conclude by reading about the dissolution and subsequent events, where President GIK dismisses Sharif's government, the Supreme Court makes a historic decision to restore it, and the resulting stalemate forces both men to resign under military mediation.
The power struggle culminated on April 18, 1993, when President GIK dismissed Nawaz Sharif's government on similar charges of corruption and misgovernance. In an unprecedented move, the Supreme Court, led by Chief Justice Nasim Hassan Shah, restored Sharif's government. However, the political paralysis was so complete that the Army Chief, General Abdul Waheed Kakar, intervened, forcing both Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and President Ghulam Ishaq Khan to resign in July 1993. This episode starkly revealed that even when the judiciary upheld the democratic mandate, the military establishment retained the ultimate power to broker political outcomes.
The Revolving Door Speeds Up: Benazir's Second Term (1993–1996)
The 1993 elections brought Benazir Bhutto back to power. Having learned from her first term, she moved to secure her position by getting her own party loyalist, Farooq Leghari, elected as President. The assumption was that this would prevent a repeat of the 1990 dismissal. This assumption proved fatally wrong.
This term was marked by even more intense political polarization, escalating corruption allegations, and a fatal breakdown of relationships, not only with the opposition but also with the judiciary and ultimately, her own handpicked President.
[PDF] The Fall of PPP Governments in the 1990s: Political Rivalries and ...
This paper provides an excellent, in-depth analysis of the factors that led to the collapse of Benazir Bhutto's second government.
Please read the following sections to understand the multifaceted crises of this period: First, read "Benazir Bhutto’s Second Tenure" for a general overview of the economic, political, and governance challenges. Next, read about the intense political rivalry with Nawaz Sharif's PML-N, which created a zero-sum political environment. Then, examine the section on "Military and Bureaucratic Resistance," which highlights the continued distrust between the civilian government and the establishment. Finally, read the crucial section on the "Role of Presidents," focusing on how President Leghari, Bhutto's own ally, turned against her and used Article 58(2)(b) for her dismissal in 1996.
On November 5, 1996, in a stunning turn of events, President Farooq Leghari dismissed Benazir Bhutto's government. The charges were a familiar litany: corruption, extra-judicial killings in Karachi, and a new addition—ridiculing the judiciary. The dismissal by her own appointee demonstrated that the problem was not merely personal but systemic; the 8th Amendment created a parallel center of power that was fundamentally incompatible with a parliamentary system.
The "Heavy Mandate" and the Inevitable Collision (1997–1999)
The 1997 elections gave Nawaz Sharif a landslide victory, awarding his PML-N a two-thirds "heavy mandate" in Parliament. He interpreted this as a clear public directive to dismantle the institutional checks that had plagued the civilian governments of the 1990s. He moved swiftly to consolidate power by neutering the other two points of the "troika."
This final act of the decade saw a direct and explosive confrontation between a Prime Minister with an overwhelming majority and the pillars of the establishment—the judiciary and the military.
Why did the Establishment Turn Against Nawaz Sharif in the 90s? | The Final Takeover? | Ep 01
This documentary clip, "Why did the Establishment Turn Against Nawaz Sharif in the 90s?", features accounts from key figures of the era and provides a dramatic narrative of the confrontations during Nawaz Sharif's second term.
Please watch the following segments to understand this climactic period: First, watch the opening segment discussing early civil-military tensions and Nawaz Sharif's mindset upon returning to power with a huge majority. Next, observe the direct clash with the judiciary. The clip details the confrontation with Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah, which tragically culminated in a mob attack on the Supreme Court. Then, see how the government dealt with military oversight. Watch the section on General Jehangir Karamat's forced resignation after he publicly proposed a National Security Council. This was a direct challenge to the army's perceived right to have a say in national governance. Finally, watch the segment on the appointment of General Pervez Musharraf. Note the Prime Minister's belief that he had chosen a loyal and pliant Army Chief, a miscalculation that would have historic consequences.
Having removed the President's power to dismiss him via the 13th Amendment and subdued the judiciary, Nawaz Sharif turned his attention to the army. The final confrontation was sparked by the Kargil War in 1999, which led to a complete breakdown of trust between the Prime Minister and the Army Chief he had appointed, General Pervez Musharraf. Fearing he would be ousted, Sharif attempted to dismiss Musharraf while he was on a flight back from Sri Lanka. The army's top command reacted swiftly, preventing the plane from landing, seizing control of the state, and overthrowing the government on October 12, 1999. The democratic decade had ended, once again, with a military coup.
Conclusion: A Decade of Democratic Decay
The 1990s in Pakistan were a story of squandered democratic opportunities. The decade was defined by a destructive cycle of political instability fueled by several interconnected factors:
- The 8th Amendment (Article 58(2)(b)): This constitutional relic of the Zia era acted as a "sword of Damocles" over every elected government, allowing non-elected presidents to subvert the parliamentary system.
- The Role of the Establishment: The military and intelligence agencies, unaccustomed to civilian oversight, consistently worked to keep elected governments weak and off-balance, either by propping up opposition or through direct intervention.
- Adversarial Politics: The bitter, zero-sum rivalry between the PPP and PML-N meant that the opposition often collaborated with the establishment to destabilize the sitting government rather than strengthening democratic norms.
- Weaponization of Accountability: Allegations of corruption, while often credible, were systematically used as a political tool by all sides to legitimize the dismissal of rivals, creating a culture of selective accountability that undermined the rule of law.
This turbulent period left Pakistan's democratic institutions weaker than ever. The constant power struggles crippled governance, stalled economic progress, and deepened public cynicism. Ultimately, the failure of the political class to unite and the establishment's refusal to cede power created a vacuum that was filled, yet again, by direct military rule.
Key Takeaways:
- The political instability of the 1990s was driven by a structural conflict between elected Prime Ministers and the non-elected "establishment" (Presidency and Military).
- Article 58(2)(b) was the primary constitutional tool used to dismiss four consecutive governments, perpetuating a cycle of weak and short-lived democratic tenures.
- The intense and personal rivalry between Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif prevented the formation of a united political front to protect democratic institutions.
- The establishment played a crucial role in managing the political landscape, backing different factions at different times to ensure its strategic interests were protected.
- Nawaz Sharif's attempt to achieve civilian supremacy with a "heavy mandate" backfired, leading to direct confrontations with the judiciary and military, and culminating in the 1999 coup.
In our next lesson, we will analyze the era of General Pervez Musharraf (1999–2008). We will examine his doctrine of 'Enlightened Moderation' and explore how Pakistan's political and economic trajectory was reshaped by the events of 9/11 and the subsequent "War on Terror."