Study

Use anatomical position and standard regional names to describe the location of a body structure.

Apply paired directional terms to compare the locations of two body structures.

Identify sagittal, frontal, transverse, and oblique planes from diagrams or specimens.

Locate the major dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.

Locate the four abdominopelvic quadrants and nine abdominopelvic regions.

Arrange the chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ-system, and organismal levels of organization in order.

Match each major organ system with its principal organs and general functions.

Diagram a homeostatic control loop and distinguish negative feedback from positive feedback in physiological examples.

Determine the number and roles of protons, neutrons, and electrons in atoms, ions, and isotopes.

Predict whether atoms will form ionic, covalent, or hydrogen bonds in basic biological examples.

Distinguish solutes, solvents, electrolytes, acids, bases, and buffers in body-fluid examples.

Interpret the pH scale and predict how buffers resist changes in body-fluid pH.

Relate the structures of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids to their major physiological functions.

Explain how ATP couples energy-releasing reactions to energy-requiring cellular work.

Match major cytoplasmic organelles with their cellular functions.

Trace information flow from DNA through transcription and translation to a functional protein.

Relate the phospholipid bilayer, membrane proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates to membrane functions.

Differentiate simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis by their gradients and membrane requirements.

Predict how isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions affect cell volume.

Differentiate primary active transport from secondary active transport.

Compare endocytosis and exocytosis as mechanisms of vesicular transport.

Outline how glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation contribute to ATP production.

Sequence the stages of the cell cycle, mitosis, and cytokinesis in a somatic cell.

Contrast mitosis and meiosis by purpose, number of divisions, and resulting cells.

Classify epithelial tissues and glands from microscopic features and relate their structures to function.

Identify major connective tissues from specimens and relate their matrix composition to function.

Differentiate skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissues from microscopic features.

Identify neurons and major neuroglial cell types in nervous-tissue specimens.

Compare the structure, location, and function of mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial membranes.

Identify the epidermal strata, dermis, and subcutaneous layer on diagrams and histological specimens.

Identify hair, nails, cutaneous glands, vessels, and sensory receptors and state their functions.

Predict how burns, impaired thermoregulation, or abnormal tissue repair disrupt integumentary homeostasis.

Relate the major functions of bone to support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood-cell formation.

Identify compact-bone and spongy-bone structures on gross and microscopic specimens.

Relate osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts to bone matrix maintenance.

Sequence the major steps of intramembranous ossification.

Sequence the major steps of endochondral ossification.

Explain how epiphyseal plates, mechanical stress, hormones, and mineral balance affect bone growth and remodeling.

Sequence the stages of fracture repair.

Predict skeletal effects of disrupted calcium regulation, osteoporosis, or abnormal bone growth.

Classify bones by shape and interpret common bone-marking terminology.

Identify major skull and vertebral-column bones and landmarks on models or images.

Identify major thoracic-cage bones and landmarks on models or images.

Identify major pectoral-girdle and upper-limb bones and landmarks on models or images.

Identify major pelvic-girdle and lower-limb bones and landmarks on models or images.

Classify fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints by structure and permitted movement.

Identify the components of a synovial joint and demonstrate standard joint movements.

Predict how selected fractures, joint injuries, or degenerative changes alter movement.

Compare the cellular structure, control, and functional roles of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

Trace skeletal-muscle organization from whole muscle through fascicles and fibers to myofibrils and myofilaments.

Label sarcomere components and predict how their relationships change during contraction.

Explain how a motor neuron produces an end-plate potential and action potential in a skeletal-muscle fiber.

Sequence calcium release, troponin activation, cross-bridge cycling, and relaxation during excitation-contraction coupling.

Compare ATP production from stored phosphates, anaerobic glycolysis, and aerobic respiration during muscle activity.

Interpret muscle-twitch, summation, tetanus, recruitment, and length-tension graphs.

Predict how neuromuscular-junction disorders, electrolyte imbalances, or muscle injury alter contraction.

Interpret skeletal-muscle names using location, shape, size, fiber direction, attachments, and action.

Infer a muscle's action from its origin, insertion, and line of pull.

Identify major muscles of the head and neck and demonstrate their primary actions.

Identify major muscles of the trunk and respiration and demonstrate their primary actions.

Identify major muscles acting on the shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand and demonstrate their primary actions.

Identify major muscles acting on the hip, thigh, leg, and foot and demonstrate their primary actions.

Distinguish agonists, antagonists, synergists, and fixators in common movements.

Analyze a body movement as a first-, second-, or third-class lever system.

Organize the nervous system into central, peripheral, sensory, motor, somatic, and autonomic divisions.

Identify neuron structures and major neuroglial cell types and state their functions.

Explain how ion gradients, selective permeability, and leak channels establish resting membrane potential.

Sequence the channel events that generate and terminate an action potential.

Compare continuous and saltatory conduction and predict factors that affect conduction speed.

Sequence neurotransmitter release, receptor binding, postsynaptic potentials, and neurotransmitter removal at a chemical synapse.

Predict whether temporal and spatial summation will bring a neuron to threshold.

Classify sensory receptors by stimulus type, location, and adaptation pattern.

Identify the major regions of the cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, and cerebellum and match them with core functions.

Relate the cranial bones, meninges, blood-brain barrier, and cerebrospinal fluid to protection of nervous tissue.

Identify spinal-cord gray matter, white matter, roots, and spinal nerves on cross-sectional specimens.

Map major spinal nerves and plexuses to the body regions they serve.

Trace the components of a spinal reflex arc and predict the response to stimulation.

Trace representative ascending sensory and descending motor pathways through the spinal cord and brain.

Identify the twelve cranial nerves and test their principal sensory or motor functions.

Compare somatic motor, sympathetic, and parasympathetic pathways and predict their effects on target organs.

Identify the gross and microscopic structures of the eye and its accessory organs.

Trace light through the eye and explain refraction, accommodation, and pupillary control.

Trace phototransduction from rods and cones through the visual pathway to the cerebral cortex.

Identify the external-, middle-, and inner-ear structures on models or diagrams.

Trace sound transmission from the tympanic membrane through cochlear hair-cell activation and the auditory pathway.

Explain how semicircular ducts, the utricle, and the saccule detect dynamic and static equilibrium.

Compare receptor activation and neural pathways for olfaction and gustation.

Predict sensory deficits produced by selected damage to eye, ear, or sensory pathways.

Compare endocrine communication with nervous-system communication by signal, route, onset, and duration.

Predict a hormone's cellular mechanism from its chemical class and receptor location.

Model humoral, neural, and hormonal control of secretion using negative-feedback loops.

Trace hypothalamic control of anterior- and posterior-pituitary hormones.

Relate thyroid and parathyroid hormones to metabolic rate and calcium homeostasis.

Relate adrenal-cortex and adrenal-medulla hormones to stress, fluid balance, and metabolism.

Relate pancreatic hormones to regulation of blood glucose.

Create a source-target-effect map for major hormones from the pineal gland, thymus, gonads, kidneys, heart, digestive tract, and local tissues.