Hello! Welcome to the final lesson of our first module. Over the past six lessons, we have laid a crucial foundation, exploring the key figures and styles of colonial American poetry, from the devotional intensity of the Puritans to the polished neoclassicism of the late 18th century.
In our last lesson, we focused on Phillis Wheatley, analyzing how she masterfully employed the structure and rhetoric of neoclassical verse to claim poetic authority and subtly critique the society that had enslaved her.
This lesson serves as a capstone for the module. Our goal is to synthesize everything we've learned by directly comparing the formal constraints of colonial American poetry with its English Metaphysical and neoclassical models. We will bring together Anne Bradstreet, Edward Taylor, and Phillis Wheatley to see how they inherited, adapted, and sometimes diverged from the poetic traditions of John Donne, George Herbert, and Alexander Pope. This comparative view will clarify how a distinctly American poetic consciousness began to form.
1. The Metaphysical Inheritance: England vs. The New England Frontier
The first major English poetic style we discussed was that of the Metaphysical poets of the early 17th century. Let's start by briefly reviewing their key characteristics.
Early Seventeenth-Century Poetry (1600-1660): Metaphysical, Cavalier, & Puritan | Lecture 8
To refresh your memory on the specific formal qualities of English Metaphysical poetry, please watch this segment from Adam Walker's lecture on the topic. He provides excellent examples from John Donne.
Please watch from 09:20 to 18:49. As you watch, pay close attention to the discussion of Donne's 'rough meter,' conversational tone, and intellectual style, which deliberately breaks with the smooth, musical verse of the Elizabethans. Note how the form reflects the process of thought.
As the video reminds us, the English Metaphysical style, particularly in Donne, is characterized by:
- Metaphysical Conceits: Unconventional, intellectually complex metaphors yoking together dissimilar ideas.
- Rough Meter: Deliberate disruptions in rhythm that mirror the natural patterns of speech or intense thought.
- Intellectual and Argumentative Tone: Poetry that "thinks out loud," often engaging in logical or philosophical arguments.
- Devotional or Erotic Themes: A focus on the complexities of love and religion.
In colonial America, the primary heir to this tradition was Edward Taylor. However, Taylor was not merely an imitator. His context—the harsh Massachusetts frontier and a strict Puritan theology—fundamentally shaped his use of the Metaphysical style.
Edward Taylor's Preparatory Meditations
This excerpt from Min-Hua Wu's scholarly article on Edward Taylor provides a precise comparison between his work and that of the English Metaphysicals, highlighting his unique adaptations.
Please read the following two selections: Start at 'They are none the less far from being merely derivative works' and read to the end of that section ('...in petition rather than in resolution in front of God the Almighty'). This part discusses Taylor's 'decorum of imperfection' and his different relationship with God compared to George Herbert. Read the section titled 'Metaphysical Wit as a “Safe Pleasure” in the Wilderness'. This explores why the 'toy' of wit was so important in the bleak colonial environment. As you read, consider how Taylor's theology and physical environment caused him to adapt the Metaphysical style.
As the article explains, Taylor's American version of the Metaphysical style differs from its English model in several key ways:
- Source of Conceits: While Donne might draw from scholasticism, law, or alchemy, Taylor's conceits are famously rooted in the domestic and natural world of the colonies. His soul is a "Spinning Wheele," Christ is a blacksmith, and grace is a cordial. This creates what some critics call a "wilderness baroque"—an ornate, complex style built from humble materials.
- "Decorum of Imperfection": Unlike Herbert's "sweet and trusting friendliness with God," Taylor's Puritan belief in human depravity and God's overwhelming majesty leads to a poetry of self-diminishment. His poems often end not in confident resolution, but in a questioning, subjunctive plea for grace. The "roughness" of his meter feels less like a conversational choice (as in Donne) and more like the stammering of an unworthy soul before an awesome God.
- Function of Wit: For Taylor, metaphysical wit was not just a courtly game; it was a "safe pleasure" and a psychological tool for survival in the "barren wilderness." It allowed for a flash of "holy delight" and spiritual exercise in a world that offered few other comforts.
2. The Neoclassical Model: Polish, Order, and Revolution
The other major English tradition influencing colonial poets was Neoclassicism, which dominated the 18th century. In contrast to the Metaphysical style, it valued:
- Form: The heroic couplet (rhyming pairs of iambic pentameter lines).
- Language: Elevated, clear, and polished diction.
- Themes: Public subjects like morality, philosophy, and politics.
- Tone: Rational, ordered, and balanced.
The undisputed English master of this style was Alexander Pope. In America, we see its influence first in Anne Bradstreet's early work and most famously in the poetry of Phillis Wheatley.
As we saw in our second lesson, Bradstreet's early poetry, such as "The Four Seasons," was written in heroic couplets with classical allusions. This was her way of proving she could master the "high style" and participate in the English literary tradition.
However, it is Phillis Wheatley who provides the most compelling case study of an American poet adapting the neoclassical model. Let's examine her poem, "To His Excellency General Washington." You can find the full text in the resource from our previous lesson.
To His Excellency General Washington
For a quick reference, here is the text and analysis of Wheatley's poem. We will focus on its formal properties.
Briefly review the poem and the 'Style' and 'Critical Essay' sections. Note the perfect execution of neoclassical conventions: heroic couplets, ten-syllable lines, elevated language ('refulgent,' 'refluent'), and classical allusions (Columbia as a 'goddess,' 'Eolus').
Formally, Wheatley's poem is a textbook example of English neoclassicism. She flawlessly executes the heroic couplet and employs the expected elevated diction and classical machinery. But here is the crucial difference:
- Subversive Purpose: The English neoclassical style, particularly Pope's, was often used to uphold and satirize the existing social and political order. Wheatley, as we've discussed, appropriates this very form of the establishment to support a revolution against it. She uses the language of order, reason, and divine sanction to legitimize the American cause and its leader.
- A New "Columbia": Wheatley uses the elevated, epic language typically reserved for Greek heroes or English monarchs to describe an American general and a nascent nation. This act of naming and praise elevates the colonial struggle onto the world stage, using the formal constraints of the old world to validate the new.
While Taylor adapted the Metaphysical style to the internal landscape of Puritan devotion, Wheatley adapted the Neoclassical style to the external landscape of American political revolution.
Test your understanding!
Based on what we've learned, what is the fundamental difference in the purpose of formal constraint for Edward Taylor versus Phillis Wheatley?
Show answer
For Edward Taylor, the formal constraints of the metaphysical style (complex conceits, stanza forms) served a private, devotional purpose. They were a scaffold for theological meditation and a way to structure his personal, often fraught, relationship with God. The form was a tool for spiritual self-examination.
For Phillis Wheatley, the formal constraints of the neoclassical style (heroic couplets, polished diction) served a public, political purpose. They were a tool for gaining legitimacy and authority in the public sphere. By mastering the form of the powerful, she was able to enter public discourse and use that form to argue for revolutionary ideas, including her own people's liberty.
3. A Tale of Three Styles: A Comparative Summary
To synthesize this module, let's organize our comparison into a table. I have included the Puritan Plain Style as a third, distinctly American stream that consciously rejects the "high style" of both Metaphysical and Neoclassical poetry in favor of didactic clarity.
| Style | English Model | American Adaptation |
|---|---|---|
| Metaphysical | Poets: John Donne, George Herbert. Formal Traits: Metaphysical conceits, rough meter, argumentative tone. Themes: Erotic love, scholastic theology, complex relationship with God. |
Poet: Edward Taylor. Formal Traits: Conceits from domestic/frontier life ("wilderness baroque"), "decorum of imperfection," meter reflecting spiritual struggle. Themes: Puritan covenant theology, personal unworthiness, preparation for sacraments. |
| Neoclassical | Poet: Alexander Pope. Formal Traits: Heroic couplets, iambic pentameter, elevated diction, classical allusions, balance, and order. Themes: Morality, social satire, philosophy, upholding the established order. |
Poets: Phillis Wheatley, Anne Bradstreet (early). Formal Traits: Flawless execution of heroic couplets and conventions. Themes: Legitimizing the American Revolution, arguing for spiritual/political freedom, public praise/elegy. |
| Puritan Plain Style | Poets: Richard Baxter, John Bunyan. Formal Traits: Direct language, straightforward meter (often ballad stanza), rejection of ornate figures. Themes: Moral action, pilgrimage, clear communication of religious doctrine. |
Poets: Michael Wigglesworth, Anne Bradstreet (later). Formal Traits: Ballad meter, highly accessible language, didactic purpose. Themes: Communal instruction (The Day of Doom), jeremiads, personal faith in everyday language ("Verses Upon the Burning of Our House"). |
This table shows that colonial American poetry was not a single entity. It was a dynamic field where poets actively chose, combined, and adapted English models to speak to their unique spiritual, physical, and political realities.
Conclusion
This brings us to the end of our first module. We have traced the very beginnings of American poetry, seeing how it grew from a direct engagement with powerful English literary traditions.
Key Takeaways:
- Colonial American poetry developed through the adaptation of English models, primarily the Metaphysical and Neoclassical styles.
- Edward Taylor adapted the Metaphysical style for the intense, private world of Puritan devotion, creating a "wilderness baroque" from the materials of his colonial life.
- Phillis Wheatley adapted the Neoclassical style for the public, political stage, using the forms of the establishment to argue for revolutionary change.
- The Puritan Plain Style offered a third path, prioritizing direct, didactic communication of religious truth for the entire community.
- In every case, the formal constraints of a chosen style were not merely decorative; they were tools used by American poets to navigate their relationship with God, society, and the challenging new world they inhabited.
In our next module, "The Poetics of a New Nation," we will see how American poets begin to move beyond these models. We'll explore their conscious efforts to forge a uniquely American literary identity in the wake of the Revolution, setting the stage for the great Romantic flowering to come.