Science

Distinguish electrical signaling along a neuron from chemical signaling across a synapse.

Trace the sensory, processing, and motor steps of a simple reflex arc.

Compare nervous and endocrine signals by route, speed, duration, and target specificity.

Trace one reproductive hormone feedback loop from the brain to the gonads.

Use a joint diagram to explain how bones, cartilage, ligaments, and tendons enable controlled movement.

Explain how sliding protein filaments and ATP produce skeletal-muscle contraction.

Calculate torque in a simple limb model and predict how changing a moment arm affects muscle force.

Trace blood through the heart chambers, valves, pulmonary circuit, and systemic circuit.

Use pressure difference and vascular resistance to predict a change in blood flow.

Predict water and solute movement across a capillary wall from pressure and concentration gradients.

Use pressure–volume relationships to explain inhalation and exhalation.

Predict oxygen and carbon-dioxide diffusion between alveoli and blood from partial-pressure gradients.

Explain how hemoglobin loading and unloading connects gas exchange in the lungs with respiration in body tissues.

Trace food through the digestive tract and match each major organ with its principal digestive role.

Explain how intestinal folds, villi, and microvilli promote nutrient absorption.

Predict how insulin and glucagon alter blood glucose during fed and fasting states.

Trace filtrate through a nephron and distinguish filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.

Predict how a change in antidiuretic hormone alters water reabsorption and urine concentration.

Trace the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone response to a fall in blood pressure.

Sequence the barrier, innate, and adaptive immune responses to a localized bacterial infection.

Construct a causal diagram showing how the nervous, muscular, cardiovascular, respiratory, endocrine, and temperature-control systems coordinate during exercise.